Approaches to Counselling Essay Example

Approaches to Counselling Essay Example Approaches to Counselling Paper Approaches to Counselling Paper Essay Topic: Rogerian Relationships play an important role in everyday life. You or I may define a relationship with a person in many different ways depending on the context with whom the relationship is with, whether this be peers, colleagues or loved ones. So is it possible to have a relationship with someone who you don’t know, someone such as a therapist? It may be possible; however this is not the type of relationship that is being described within counselling therapy. The client-counsellor relationship is unlike these day to day relationships that you may form with peers or loved ones, it is highly specialised; depending on the approach, it is usually informal in a structured manner, with boundaries and rules to dictate where the relationship may or may not go. These boundaries can have a powerful effect on the degree of the relationship; for instance the provision of confidentiality can help the client self-disclose more easily, and this confidentiality in turn creates and provides an atmosphere of trust which has been described as an aspect of an intimate relationship (Monsour, 1992). This essay will focus on the relationship process in different counselling approaches; namely Existential counselling, Psychodynamic counselling and Person-Centred counselling. It will aim to understand the process and therapeutic approach used in counselling and how the relationship between client-counsellor evolves and what effect this will have on the outcome. Throughout history, support has been seen to be a key aspect of recovery from illness. Iroquois Indians believed the cause of ill health to be unfulfilled wishes (Wallace, 1958 [cited in McLeod, 2009]); diviners would discover these unfulfilled wishes which were seen to be unconscious, and organise a festival of wishes where by neighbours, loved ones and the community would help to fulfil these wishes. In countries such as India the prevalence of mental health counselling is relatively low; the notion that western counselling theories and can be transported across from individualistic societies to collectivistic society may be seen as inappropriate. In India family support, even today, is still seen as being used as the first point of contact for illness; culture and religion plays a significant role in the day to day lives. Western society was not so different to this before industrialisation. Religion played an important role in the western societies, where mild emotional and interpersonal problems were dealt with by priests (McNeil, 1951 [cited in McLeod, 2009]), and a shift from â€Å"tradition centred† (Riesman, 1950 [cited in McLeod, 2009]) to â€Å"inner-direction† approach was seen with the rise of Freudian and Rogerian counselling. According to Burnard (1992) â€Å"the main point of working in the health care field is to communicate†. Communication is broad, and the form of communication that takes place is as varied as those in the relationship. The positioning of people and body language all contribute to revealing the feelings of one person to another (Argyle, 1983); this is because non-verbal communication, unlike verbal communication can not be effectively withheld. Morrison Burnard (1997) say that listening and attending are â€Å"by far the most important aspects involved in counselling†, and that clients would lose faith in a counsellor who stares out of the window or fiddles with a pen. If a counsellor uses Rogers’ (1957) core conditions, the counsellor will be exhibiting a presence which is inviting and warm, and allows for an effective therapeutic relationship. Rogers is seen as the founder of ‘client-centred approach’ (often referred to as person-centred). The approach involves the counsellor helping the client find their own solutions to problems, without the counsellor giving direct advice (Morrison Burnard, 1997). The person-centred approach believes the client is the best authority on themselves and their experiences, however that achieving this potential requires favourable conditions and that poor conditions may disrupt personal development. Rogers (1957) believes the client often comes to a counsellor because of incongruence between the client’s self image and their ideal self, and the role of the counsellor is to facilitate the client to resolve this incongruence. One reason that incongruence may occur is because individuals often cope by accepting views of others and gradually incorporating these into their own views about themselves. Overtime an individual’s intrinsic sense of their own identity, evaluations of their own experiences and attributions of value may be replaced due to conditional acceptance from others. This is the basis for the first of the three core conditions (1. Unconditional positive regard/acceptance; 2. Empathic understanding; 3. Congruence), maintained by the person-centred approach. The first condition allows the client to freely explore all thoughts and feelings without danger of rejection, and crucially the client is free to explore these without having to meet any standards of behaviour to earn positive regard. The second, empathic understanding, is so that the counsellor can accurately understand the clients thoughts, feelings and meaning, from the clients perspective. Burnard (1992) cites Kalisch as defining empathy as â€Å"the ability to perceive accurately the feelings of another person and to communicate this understanding to him†. The final condition, congruence, is for the counsellor to be authentic and genuine, and not to present a facade, where the client is free to understand the counsellor as much as the counsellor understands the client. Rogers states that if a counsellor is being congruent then this may lead to the counsellor self-disclosing, however that this is not so that the counsellor can talk about their own feelings, but to ensure that a client is not deceived by a facade (Corey, 1991). Rogers believed these three conditions were both necessary and sufficient for therapeutic progress to occur, and that there is nothing essentially unique about the relationship, and that a healthy relationship with others may manifest the core conditions in them. However a frequent criticism is that delivering the core conditions is what all good therapists do anyway before applying their individual therapeutic approaches. Bowers and Clum (1988) reviewed studies which compared therapies with a technique focus, therapies with a relationship focus (placebo therapy), and therapies with both. They found that both contribute to the effectiveness of psychotherapy, and that the therapeutic relationship contributes a unique piece of variance to the effectiveness of therapy. In addition, Bolstad (1992) found that using closed questions or too many questions at all was found to be an inhibitory factor in the relationship, so the use of minimal prompts (such as â€Å"umm†, â€Å"yes† and even body movements like nodding [as seen in Rogerian person-centred counselling]) should be present in all counselling sessions. The existential approach views humans as continually changing and transforming, living essentially finite lives. The focus of this approach being on the client’s life and exploring the meaning and value in accordance with one’s own ideals, priorities and values. Psychological disturbance is taken as the outcome of avoiding life’s truths and working in the shadow of other people’s expectations and values. This approach places great emphasis on the therapist’s ability to be aware of, and to question their own biases and prejudices; the facilitation of the client’s beliefs and values are essential to building the therapeutic relationship, and thus the therapists is seen to being naive within the therapy. To understand the client, the therapist explores the client’s existence on four main dimensions (1. phsyical; 2. social; 3. psychological; 4. spritiual). Van Deurzen (2000) observes there are â€Å"obvious existential elements† in the person-centred approach; and in an historical context the philosopher (Soren Kerikegaard) most frequently mentioned by Rogers, also contributed significantly to existential counselling. Legg (1998) surmised that academic Psychology has advanced over the last 50 years, whereby theories (such as personality theories) have evolved, but the empirical foundations of counselling (both person-centred and existential) are virtually never addressed in current literature. The difference between person-centred and existential being that the existential approach focuses on the relationship a person has with themselves and the world around them, whereas the person-centred approach focuses on the development of the self under more or less welcoming conditions. Modern psychological therapies can trace some roots back to Freud and his methods of psychoanalysis. He strongly supported the idea of lay analysts without medical training, which was ever increasing difficult as western society moved towards medical, biological and scientific approaches to illness. Psychodynamic therapy focuses on the idea that most of mental disorders lie in the unconscious mind, and therefore the patient is unaware of them. Freud believed that in order to treat the problem, the client’s repressed desires and problems must be uncovered in order for the therapy to proceed. The psychodynamic therapist uses the here and now to determine possible explanations in everyday life (McLeod, 2009). Although modern psychodynamic therapy is still heavily influenced by Freud’s original ideas from the early 1900’s, it has been highly developed since, taking a more social relationship-oriented approach (McLeod, 2009). The core principals are for the therapist to understand the development of personality, particularly how it was shaped by early family life and environment. Freud favoured two methods of assessing a client’s unconscious thoughts and feelings; dream analysis, and free association. These were developed after Freud learnt ‘hypnosis’ from French psychologist Charcot Janet. Freud maintained the idea that a client and therapist must have a good rapport for therapy to work, however his scepticism about hypnosis lead to the development of ‘free association’, which works on the principal that the client is comfortable enough to talk freely. The relationship within a psychodynamic therapy in modern psychology allows for a more personal relationship; by having the counsellor as a ‘blank screen’ onto which the client can project their thoughts and feeling about themselves, allows for the therapist to understand how the client is feeling, this hopefully leads to the same relationship and rapport that the client is trying to overcome; this is the most commonly used method in modern psychodynamic therapy (transference). However a major criticism of psychodynamic therapy, unlike other therapies, is that the counsellor/therapist is offering his or her own opinions on the situation. Both existential and person-centred tries to get the patient to reflect on their own experiences, here in psychodynamic therapy we see that the counsellor may offer an interpretation. Researchers found that in extreme cases, such as sexual abuse in women, psychodynamic therapy may elicit more withdrawals than progressive results (Farber, 2009). This also occurred in sessions with post traumatic stress disorder patients, who withdrew considerably after a psychodynamic treatment (Markowitz, 2009). Van Denburg Van Denburg (1992) note premature termination resulted from failures in empathy; they also note that others have suggested that premature termination occurs from too strong negative transference(Mahler, 1952), fears of abandonment by and separation from the therapist, and too strong feelings regarding dependence on the therapist (transference resistance Freud). Today psychodynamic therapy is mainly used to treat problems such as personality disorders, anxiety attacks, panic and depressive disorders. Thus far this essay has looked at three approaches in counselling, and identified ways in which the therapists build relationships with the clients. But how effective is the therapeutic relationship in counselling? Research has consistently reported a positive relationship across studies between the quality of the therapeutic alliance and therapy outcome, although there are some instances where the working alliance fails to predict outcome or where associations are nonsignificant (Gaston, 2004; Hovarth, 1991, 1993, 1994; Krupnick, 1996 [cited in Knaevelsrud Maercker, 2006]). Blagys and Hilsenroth (2000, 2002) found seven interventions that stood out as distinguishing psychodynamic and interpersonal therapy from cognitive–behavioural treatment, and six techniques and interventions were identified as distinctive activities of CBT. Lambert and Ogles (2004) indicated that varying types of therapy usually yield similar results, but the possibility of differences should not be excluded. However, different approaches have been exposed to systematic evaluation to various degrees. A comparison was made between psychoanalytical psychotherapy and behaviour therapy, where both sets of therapists were rated equally on display of warmth; however the behaviour therapists were rated as more active and seemed more genuine (Sloane, Staples, Cristol, Yorkston Whipple, 1975). Research about therapeutic orientation and attachment styles has shown that having a psychodynamic orientation predicted the quality of the alliance as being less positive, and the psychodynamic therapists reported more problems in therapy, compared with cognitive– behaviour therapists, cognitive–analytic/ integrative or eclectic therapists, and humanistic therapists (Black, Hardy, Turpin, Parry, 2005).

Writing Graduate School Entrance Essays

Writing Graduate School Entrance Essays If you are thinking about applying for graduate school, chances are you once applied (and were admitted) to undergraduate school. That being the case, Im certain you had to compose a personal statement to accompany your undergraduate application. Remember that? Wasnt it fun? No? Well, then youre out of luck. Because you have to repeat the process all over again with graduate school entrance essays. Lets face it: no one likes to write an entrance essay and/or personal statement composition for college admission. In addition to being personally revealing and creatively stifling, the things are just plain difficult to compose. Unfortunately, college admissions boards use these essays to separate the average from the above average applicants. So you might as well make the most of it. Graduate school application essays are, in my opinion, much easier to write than those for undergraduate school because youve already gone through the process once already. Heck, you might even want to locate and dust off your undergraduate statement for inspiration. After all, its not really plagiarism if youre copying from yourself. When writing your graduate school entrance essays, it helps to go easy on yourself. Allow for plenty of time and prepare for some frustration. In the end, your graduate school essay, whether its a nursing essay, a residency statement, or an MBA essay, is going to determine your future. So no pressure.

Response of the United States to the Katarina Catastrophe Assignment - 7

Response of the United States to the Katarina Catastrophe - Assignment Example However, the administration lacks proper and efficient methods, hence failing to convince international partners to venture into the project. With this knowledge, the government has no other way but to come up with detailed procedures for accepting foreign aid. The first step entails setting up a communication protocol with a mandate to request for tailored support in a discreetly proper method (Lasser, 2012). National Preparedness and Response Authority (NPRA) creation and enactment will benefit in the provision of grave leadership for alertness and response to cataclysms. With the task, the NPRA, therefore, needs qualified and experienced leaders in crisis management. In addition, the technic used together with the staff needs real and professional knowledge in disaster management and justification (Bissell, 2014). The NPRA integrates inclusive approaches to crisis management, which involves readiness, response, repossession, and mitigation. Essential infrastructures that include energy and telecommunication system look up to the NPRA for protection from harm and recovery in case of a previous natural disaster encounter. For efficiency and systemic procedures, the establishment of regional offices will help coordinate the response process effectively. It is also the mandate of local agencies to identifying and tailor response to disasters that affect specified geographical areas (Lasser, 2012). The content of the paper precedes research on how a sea storm resulted to Katrina destructive hurricane. It clearly brings out the effects of Katrina on the population and destroyed properties in the affected areas. It also includes both the merits and demerits of processes used in the handling of the Katrina, with clearly outlined policies and recommendations in case of future occurrence of the same disaster. If followed, future damages will be reduced (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2014).

Critically evaluate the extent to which intangible resources can be Essay

Critically evaluate the extent to which intangible resources can be used to legitimise management authority in organisations - Essay Example Thus, they are the assets, which the company must recognize as its significant components, which are rather better determinants of the company’s performance than the actual money it generates (Cameron, pp. 88-92, 2004). Most authors and intellectuals, today, focus on the need of knowledge workers in the modern industry to keep the ship sailing. They are of the opinion than in this uncertain world, where downsizing and losses in one company, may also affect the situation in another company, located way far from the host (TSG, p.1, 2009). On the other hand, increase in demand of a product or a service in one country, may also lead to increase in demand of the same product in some other culturally distinct country. Economic insecurity may often liquidate tangible resources with no prior notice and the global dilemma of interrelated companies, put greater expectations on the managers to control and organize the information from around the world on their fingertips. In these difficult times, human resource, as the intangible resource of the company, is the most effective tool to cope up with changing situations (Andriessen, p.1 2004). Today’s era is information era and all the stake of the companies requires handling and managing information critically. This information may include knowledge about the product or service cost, employees’ needs and concerns, competitors in the market, company’s capital at hand etc. Managing company information carefully means that internal members of the organization take good care of the power entrusted upon them and channelized the information attained properly down the hierarchy. According to management research, much of the company’s progress depends on the top managements efforts to align the company’s resources. With regard to intangible resources, strategic competitiveness is much dependent on the way lower staff, age, workload, education standard, job performance, and empowerment

Computer Graphics Effect On Animation

Computer Graphics Effect On Animation The history of computer animation can be traced back many decades to such films as Peter Foldes 1971 film Metadata, or even a 1968 attempt by Soviets to animate a cat. It was in the 1980s, however, that the techniques became more widely used and the industry truly began to experience big changes in how things were done. The advent of this new technology meant that machines could do more of the work, much like with the use of robots in manufacturing. While this machinery is a godsend for productivity, it brings with it concern for peoples jobs and the survival of the traditional way of doing things. One animator by the name of Bill Kroyer brought these concerns to the forefront in 1988 with his own animated interpretation of the ongoing development of this threat. Bill Kroyers Technological Threat serves as an excellent metaphor for the advent of computer animation and how it affected the animation industry and validity of the fears it brought forth. From its infancy up until recent decades, traditional animation techniques were the only methods of animation available before the advent of more powerful computers. Much of it requires each frame to be hand-drawn or, in the case of stop motion, each character or object has to be sculpted and moved little by little for each frame that is captured. It is tedious work. These traditional techniques take a lot of time and patience to do successfully. Throughout the decades there have been attempts to minimize the work involved with animation, such as the introduction of cel animation which put characters and objects on clear celluloid which would then be animated on top of a background image. This meant that a background would only have to be made once, whereas beforehand it had to be redrawn completely with each passing frame. Another time-saving innovation came in the form of Walt Disneys multiplane camera system, which took cel animation even further by making the creation of depth mu ch easier by separating and moving each individual part of the scenery independently and at varying distances from the camera. Even with these advancements, however, the same traditional techniques were required to actually animate anything. Computers brought forth a drastic change in the playing field, essentially turning the art into a science. Soon one of the first instances of computer animation would come in 1960 when John Whitney developed his analog computer to make title sequences for movies and television, using surplus anti-air guidance hardware from World War II. While computers became widely used in animation during the 1980s, there were still quite a few instances of it in the preceding decades, starting with the aforementioned machine developed by Whitney. The computer technology of the time was rather limited and therefore usually only used for experiments. For instance, Peter Foldes used the first implementation of key frame software to create Metadata in 1971. While it entailed the use of a data tablet, which was surprisingly modern for the era, it was limited to two-dimensional animation and could only show simple line drawings of objects in a couple of colors. This film was merely experimental, however, and was followed 3 years later by Hunger in 1974, which was intentionally done in black and white line dr awings. Computers would quickly become powerful enough to render much more realistic imagery, as was exemplified by Loren Carpenters Vol Libre which he presented at SIGGRAPH in 1980, a computer graphics conference held annually. It used fractals to generate breathtaking mountainous scenery and instantly landed him a job at Lucasfilm. Of the animators that worked during the era that computer animation became more widespread, one particularly interesting perspective is that of Bill Kroyer. Bill got his start in animation in the mid-1970s, just before the computer revolution of the 1980s. He originally was denied a job at Disney, but would later be hired by them in 1977, during a time when Disney Animation, and the animation industry as a whole, was in the midst of a slump. He did not stay with Disney long, as he soon left to work with Steve Lisberger on Animalympics. The major milestone in Bills career, however, came in 1982 when they developed Tron which they teamed up with Disney to work on. As Kroyer himself put it, Tron was the beginning. It was the moment when computer graphics made its first contact with the animation industry-like the sperm and the egg. It was neat, because nobody had ever done it before. There were no experts around (Kroyer). It was the first time computer animation would be used so extensi vely on a feature film, and it became almost a prophecy of what would develop in the coming years. Jobs that used to take hundreds of people to do, such as painting backgrounds, can now be accomplished cheaply and quickly by using computers. While Kroyer enjoyed working with computers to animate, he longed for the illusion of hand-drawn cartoons and decided to start Kroyer Films with his wife in 1986 with the intention of combining traditional and computer animation. He became a pioneer in combining the two techniques. While Kroyer was skilled at animating, he was also knowledgeable about writing computer programs, and developed one with his wife that could use a plotter to draw out the computer animations on paper. Such use of computers for animating made many animators begin to fear it taking over and forcing them out of their careers. In response to these fears, Kroyer made Technological Threat in 1988. In it, a group of hand-drawn cartoon dogs are employees at a company and are threatened by their seemingly inevitable replacement by highly efficient robots, which are computer animated. This paranoia culminates into a struggle for survival that ultimately ends in the last remaining dog employee taking down his now-robotic boss with the help of one of the robots, which he proceeds to double-cross to eliminate the threat altogether, leaving him the only remaining employee, the top dog as it were. The film was essentially about traditional animators ultimately working in harmony with this new techn ology and ultimately being highly successful in their careers, perhaps more so than they would have previously. The dog protagonist, symbolic of traditional animators fearing the loss of their job, defies the odds and in the end triumphs, rising in rank to become the new boss. The robots represent the computers used to do computer animation, appearing innocent and diligently going about their work, but ultimately are no less susceptible to losing their jobs than the dogs are. Kroyers approach to animating goes against traditional animators fears by combining both methods and using them to their fullest potential. According to the theories of Paul Wells, this film would be considered developmental animation, as it maintains many traditional aspects of orthodox animated films but mixes two different styles of animation in a more modern approach. According to him, Developmental Animation operates as a mode of expression combining or selecting elements of both approaches, representing t he aesthetic and philosophical tension between the two apparent extremes (Wells, 35). There was no doubt a tension between the two approaches during the time this film came out. Kroyer goes on to explain that, despite this new and highly capable tool, the artistic vision of the animator is still crucial to a films success. Computers are merely another tool in the animators arsenal. Throughout the 1980s, computers went into widespread use, from businesses to residential homes. These machines revolutionized everybodys lives and had far reaching effects on many peoples jobs, not just those of animators. While computers have increased productivity almost everywhere, they have threatened to eliminate many jobs and force many to either learn to use the new technology or remain unemployed. It is truly a situation where we are made to keep up with changes in the workplace or else risk being left behind in a dust cloud of our own stubbornness. This was an especially trying time for many animators as computers had finally reached the point where they would be practical to use in animation. But unlike many jobs that were completely taken over by computers, animation allows for the coexistence of computers with traditional techniques. Understandably, one would think traditional animation to be doomed through the development of this amazing new technology. This could not be farther from the truth, however, as traditional animation remained strong through the 1980s and continues to grow. In fact, it has seen a sort of revival in recent years. In 2009, Disney released The Princess and the Frog, their first traditionally animated feature since they made Home on the Range in 2004. During the 1990s, the Disney Renaissance brought us multiple wildly successful films using traditional techniques, including such films as The Lion King and Mulan. Even with the massive success of Toy Story in 1995, Disney continued to make traditionally animated films on a yearly basis even after the end of the renaissance in 1999. While the renaissance did die out and Disney seemingly put traditional animation on the backburner after Home on the Range, they have shown us that it really is not dead after all with Princess and the Frog and ha s promised to release a traditionally animated film every 2 years from now on. Similarly, Hayao Miyazaki, a highly acclaimed animator from Japan, has built his career off of creating fantastical feature films primarily using traditional animation, and has won various prestigious awards for his creations. Since creating Princess Mononoke, he has begun to implement computer animation in some sequences of his films. Despite this, he retains traditional 2D cel animation as his primary medium of choice. Through all of this it is also important to note that traditional animation still continues to garner critical acclaim insofar as receiving awards and nominations for awards. The medium, while requiring a greater amount of labor and time, still produces many high quality films worthy of critical praise. For instance, Disneys recently released Princess and the Frog was nominated for a Golden Globe, and Miyazaki has been nominated for or won awards for a lot of his films. Bill Kroyer was also nominated for an Acedemy Award for Technological Threat. This just goes to show that the look of traditional animation is not seen as obsolete and can be beautifully done, as has been shown for countless decades. Another important aspect of these two techniques to consider is the overall cost of production for films that use either technique. There has been a growing misconception that computer animation is far more cost-effective overall than traditional animation. While this is true in some instances, in actuality it is subjective to the films being compared. One good comparison to make that disproves this fallacy is between two feature films released by Disney: Bolt and Mulan. Bolt was Disneys CGI major feature released a couple of years ago in 2008, while Mulan was their traditionally animated feature of 1998, which happened to come out towards the end of the Disney Renaissance. Both films have about an hour and a half of runtime. There is a staggering difference in production budgets, however. While Mulan carried a production budget of 90 million dollars, Bolt had an astonishingly large budget of 150 million, 60 million more than Mulan! This clearly shows that the cost of production is s ubjective to the film being worked on and can change in favor of either computers or traditional techniques. Despite the hype for computer animated features following the massive success of Toy Story in 1995, there have been CGI films that have been less than successful, such as Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within in 2001. This film, despite having ultra-realistic CGI and a budget of 137 million dollars, was a total flop, with revenues not even covering the production costs for the film. A films financial viability can depend on many factors, like the quality of what is being animated, and of course how it is marketed, but that is another issue entirely. In short, CGI-animated films can be cheaper than those made with traditional animation in some cases, but often can cost just as much if not more. The costs of each are comparable to each other, the only major difference is traditional techniques tend to take longer. Much like in any other industry, computers drastically changed the way animation can be done and people feared losing their jobs because of the changes brought forth by them. But, as is exemplified by Kroyers film Technological Threat, there is little need to fear the future. Today, traditional animation and computer animation coexist and are often even used in combination on some films. Traditional animation remains a prominent form of animation to this day, and continues to grow with new animators joining the ranks. Computer graphics is not meant as a replacement for the old fashioned hand-drawn and stop motion styles, but rather another tool in their box of tricks. Just because one owns a drill does not make a screwdriver obsolete. They each have important purposes as well as advantages and disadvantages. After all, a tool is only as good as the person trained to use it.

African American Women in Hollywood Essay

In early film many African American actresses portrayed roles as mammies, slaves, seductresses, and maids. These roles suppressed them not allowing them to show their true talents. Although they had to take on these degrading roles, they still performed with dignity, elegance, grace and style. They paved the way for many actresses to follow both blacks and whites. These women showed the film industry that they were more than slaves, mammies, and maids. These beautiful actresses showed the film industry that they are able to hold lead parts and even carry the whole cast if need be. Phenomenal actresses such as Hattie McDaniels, Pearl Bailey, Ethel Waters, Nina Mae McKinney, and Dorothy Dandridge, to name a few, are African-American stars who paved the way for so many African-American actresses today despite the hardships that they were faced with. These women displayed beauty, intellect and talent, which allowed the stars that followed that they do not have to just settle for stereotypical roles. In early film there was much propaganda and even today, which lead to these demeaning roles that they had to betray, Professor Carol. Penney of Yale-New Haven writes, â€Å"Film is one of the most influential means of communication and a powerful medium of propaganda. Race and representation is central to the study of the black film actor, since the major studios reflected and reinforced the racism of their times. The depiction of blacks in Hollywood movies reinforced many of the prejudices of the white majority rather than objective reality, limiting black actors to stereotypical roles† (1). Hattie McDaniels, a trailblazer amongst African-American film, acquired many firsts for African-American actors. McDaniels was the first African-American to sing on the radio, first to receive an Oscar for best supporting actress in Gone with the Wind. She was also the first African-American to star in a sitcom in 1951 that featured an African-American actress in the title role (Pax 1). â€Å"McDaniels appeared in more than three hundred films during the twenties and thirties. Her career was built on the ? Mammy’ image, a role she played with dignity† (Smith 7). She received much flack from the blacks because of the roles she played in film and on radio. Blacks felt that she was degrading the race but her reply was to these views were, â€Å"Hell I’d rather play a maid than be one† (Encyclopedia of World Biography 406). After her acclaim role as Mammy in Gone With the Wind, McDaniels was never paid anything less than $31,000 for a performance. This was much for an African-American as well as a white entertainer. Even though she broke that barrier McDaniel was still oppressed by racism not only on film, but also off film. She was faced with racial legal problems when trying to acquire a home in Los Angeles. At that time there was a limited black land and home ownership right. Though she won the suite she still was subjected to racial hostility from her neighbors. McDaniels experience oppressions of many types during her career, but she continued to take the mammy roles but played them with dignity and respect. In spite of her being the mammy, McDaniels made sure that her characters had the â€Å"upper hand†. After McDaniels death the mammy roles died with her. Pearl Bailey, the â€Å"Ambassador of Love† career took off on Washington’s U street at the age of fifteen years of age. She started off as a singer and appeared in many nightclubs. In the mid-30’s she performed with the Noble Sissle’s Band in the Village Vanguard and Blue Angel Club. In the 40’s she was the lead singer for Count Basie, Cab Calloway and Cootie Williams. She debuted on Broadway in St. Louis Blue; she won honors for as Broadway’s best newcomer. After her debut on Broadway films she performed in Variety Girl, Isn’t It Romantic, Carmen Jones, and Porgy and Bess. â€Å"In 1967 she won a Tony Award for heading the all-black cast of Hello Dolly! A role that allowed her, she said, ? to sing, dance, say intelligent words on stage, love and be loved and deliver what God gave me? and I’m dressed up besides'†(Black History: Virginia Profiles 1). Hello Dolly! allowed Bailey to be beautiful. Former President Ronald Reagan awarded Bailey was with the Medal of Freedom in 1988. She was also a special delegate to the United Nations under Ford, Reagan and Bush. While in her sixties Bailey went back to college and received her degree in theology from Georgetown University (2). Ethel Waters, â€Å"Sweet Mama Stringbean†, started her career in Vaudeville and nightclubs. In the 1921 Waters performed her first debut album â€Å"The New York Glide† and â€Å"At the New Jump Steady Bump†. In the mid-twenties she was coined as a pop singer (Red Hot Jazz 1). â€Å"On stage she was in successful productions of Africana, Blackbird of the 1930, Rhapsody in Black, and Cabin in the Sky† (Penney 8). She also starred in Pinky in 1949 this was a message film on racism. Waters did not receive recognition for her work until she portrayed Berenice Sadie Brown in The Member of The Wedding. â€Å"The Member of the Wedding was more than simply a movie. It was very important repects a motion-picture event. Foremost, it marked the first time a black actress was used to carry a major-studio white production. Secondly, the movie was another comeback for Ethel Waters. Her autobiography, His Eye Is On The Sparrow? she told all the lurid details of her life the turbulent events in the autobiography convinced patrons that Ethel Waters, who always portrayed long-suffering women, was indeed the characters she played? Now patrons rooted for her to succeed? to triumph†(8). During Waters’s career she was nominated for an Oscar best supporting actress in the film Pinky. She also received the New York Drama Critics Award for best actress. Ethel Waters’s last performance was in the film The Sound and the Fury in 1959. She continued singing and touring with evangelist Billy Graham until her death in 1977 (Red Hot Jazz 1). Nina May McKinney was â€Å"the screen’s first black goddess† (Penney 3). â€Å"She was the first black actor in the film to be recognized as a potential mainstream star† (7). McKinney was also the most successful African-American actress in the 1920’s and 1930’s (South Carolina African American History Online 1). McKinney’s career started as a New York City nightclub dancer and later received a role in Lew Leslie’s Blackbird Revue. In 1929, King Vidor, of MGM Studios, casted McKinney as Chick, a promiscuous young woman in Hallelujah. â€Å"In the famous cabaret scene McKinney, as Chick, danced a sensuous dance which has been copied by leading lady Lena Horne in Cabin in the Sky to Lola Falana in The Liberation of L. B. Jones† (Penney 7). In Hallelujah, â€Å"Chick represented the black woman as an exotic sex object, half woman, half child. She was the black woman out of control of her emotions, split in two by her loyalty and her own vulnerabilities. Implied throughout the battle with self was the tragic mulatto theme? In this stereotypical concept the white half of her represented the spiritual; the black half-animalistic† (7). Hallelujah was considered the â€Å"‘ace of all-black pictures’? The film had a strong plot, but unfortunately the message was? blacks should stay in their place. Though McKinney received much praise for her role as Chick she did not generate leading roles in the American film industry. â€Å"She was relegated to assuming routine black characters or to partaking in independently produced, low budget all black movies, as was the pattern for most of the outstanding African-American actors and actresses of the era? McKinney acted in a few other films in the 1940’s. Her most notable role was in Pinky. McKinney was also a stage actress and performed at the famous Apollo Theatre in Harlem. Barred from opportunities and stardom in Hollywood, she soon departed the United States and took her great talents to Europe? in Greece she was known as the Black Garbo? she also starred with the great actor Paul Robeson in the film Sanders of the River† (South Carolina 2). Later in McKinney’s life the great star returned to the States and died in New York City in 1967. Dorothy Dandridge is amongst Hollywood’s beauties in the 1940’s and 1950’s. Though she receives much recognition today as the most beautiful and talented actresses of her time, but at that time she was seen as just another Black actress. Followed in the footsteps of the great Nina Ma McKinney, though they possessed the beauty and the charisma as other female actresses of their time their color was still seen first. Like many actors and actresses of her time Dandridge career went through many highs and lows because of her race. Dandridge’s career began as a singer with her sister Vivian, they were known as the Wonder Children and later the group became a trio by the name the Dandridge Sisters. She played in many movies in the 1940’s such as: Yes Indeed, Sing for My Supper, Jungle Jig, Easy Street, Cow Cow Boogie, and Paper Dolls to name a few. She was not recognized until her performance as Carmen in Carmen Jones. Her co-stars were Harry Belafonte, Pearl Bailey and Diahann Caroll. She was the first Black to be nominated for an Oscar for best actress (African-American Almanac 248). Dandridge’s role as Carmen lead to more opportunities for African-Americans in films. Dandridge was the first African-American woman to be held in the arms of a white man in the film, Island in the Sun. She was also the first African-American to have an interracial kiss in The Decks Ran Red (Pioneer Actress 2). Though the film Carmen Jones allowed Dandridge to have a lead role she the character was the stereotypical mulatto woman with a high sex drive and filled with deceit. Penney writes, â€Å"The irony that overshadowed Dandridge’s career was that although the image she marketed appeared to be contemporary and daring, at heart it was based on an old classic type, the tragic mulatto. In her important films Dorothy Dandridge portrayed doomed, unfilled women. Nervous and vulnerable, they always battled with the duality of their personalities. As such, they answered the demands of their times. Dorothy Dandridge’s characters brought to a dispirited nuclear age a razor-sharp sense of desperation that cut through the bleak monotony of the day. Eventually- and here lay the final irony- she may have been forced to live out a screen image that destroyed her† (10). Dorothy Dandridge broke many barriers during her career. She opened the doors for black romance in films. She crossed over the racial lines with interracial relationships on and off screen. Later in Dandridge’s career she found it hard to get work. She filed for bankruptcy and later committed suicide. Dandridge made it possible for African-American women to be seen as beautiful and not exotic and sexual. In conclusion, many African-Americans actresses were blackballed by the industry. They were not able to achieve the success that they were entitled to because of the era that they were living in. These stars were oppressed because of the color of their skin and not because they did not possess talent. They were limited to roles that did not allow them to be the damsels or have leading roles. And if they were cast as the lead the film stereotyped the Blacks as shiftless, deceitful, or ignorant. These are just a few of the great African-American women in film that made it easier for African-American women to get into the industry. Though today African-American people are still seen shiftless, drug addicts, gang bangers, killers, whores, and criminals, but now they have more access to the industry because now African- Americans are able to write and direct films that depict them in a better light. Film today has changed for the past from mammies. Now African-American women are teachers, doctors, lawyers, business tycoons and what have you. Yet, they are still oppressed because they are only able to produce what the movie studios say that they can produce. Today there are films like Soul Food, Love and Basketball, Rosewood, Bamboozled, and many more that have messages and have African-American women in lead roles and not being in the background. These great stars allowed Black girls to see their own kind on a big screen and feel that they are beautiful too. Work Cited The African-American Almanac, 1997. Detroit: Gale Research, 1997. Encyclopedia of World Biography. Vol. 10&16. Detroit: Gale Research, 1987. â€Å"Ethel Waters. † Online. 10 March 2005. Available: www. http://www. redhot jazz. com/waters. html. â€Å"Honoring Black History Month. † Pax Stars. Online. 10 March 2005. Available: www. http://www. pax. tv/bios/one-bio. cfm/hattie-mcdaniel. â€Å"Nina Mae McKinney. â€Å" South Carolina African American History Online. Online. 11 March 2005. Available: www. http://www.scafam-hist. org/aahc/. â€Å"Pearl Bailey. † Black History: Virginia Profiles. Online. 13 March 2005. Available:www. http://www. gatewayva. com/pages/bhistory/1996/bailey. shtml. Penney, Carol. â€Å"Black Actors inamerican Cinema. † Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute. Online. 12 March 2000. Available: www. http://www. yale. edu/ynhti/cirriculm/units. â€Å"Pioneer black actress Dorothy Dandridge has a famous cast of modern-day admirers. † Online. 12 March 2005. Available: www. http://ohio. com/bj/fun/tv/0299/002827htm.

Health Promotion in Nursing Practice Essay - 1225 Words

HEALTH PROMOTION IN NURSING PRACTICE Nursing Role and Responsibilities In health Promotion 7 January 2012 Nursing Roles and Responsibilities in Health Promotion Health promotion has become priority issues and future directions for health professions from a world perspective. By focusing on individuals, families, communities, and the environments in which people live, work, and play the health care professionals today are vital links for promoting national and international health. Nurses today are required to have sufficient vision and expertise to provide the health of their clients. With leadership, creativity, and determination, the nurse can establish a healthier future for all people around the globe. According to†¦show more content†¦Though public education is the vital part of health promotion, there are deferent methods and aspect that nurses can implement in the community. 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